The effective steps for risk assessment to identify the risks Essay

The effective steps for risk assessment to identify the risks regarding the misstated data in the financial records - Essay Example The analytical procedures can be described as ‘evaluating the financial records by analyzing the credible relationship between the financial records and non-financial records’. It can be also included that ‘such analysis is mandatory to identify the difference or inconsistency of relevant data or the difference between provided data and the estimated values’ (ISA/HKSA 520(4)). The basic principle to apply the analytical procedures is the expected existence of the credible relationship may occur and the analytical procedures may carry on in such circumstances in the non-appearance of the opposite factors. Defining the purposes Auditors use analytical procedures in the entire audit course to achieve the three main purposes of audit: 1) Preliminary analytical review These are the introductory analytical reviews, which assist the auditors to get an idea about the business and industry. They can start with reviewing the previous financial records, performance of industry and the competitors. This will lead them to decide the nature of audit, the time period required and the level of analytical procedures. Basically, preliminary analytical reviews help to design the strategies and plans to conduct the audit. 2) Substantive analytical procedures Auditors can use the analytical procedures substantively. If the auditors feel that their analytical procedure can bring more accurate results rather than using different tests, so they usually reduce the level of tests to identify the misstated facts of the financial records. These procedures will be known as substantive analytical procedures. 3) Final analytical reviews Financial records are analyzed thoroughly by the auditors through analytical procedures, which lead the independent individuals towards th e outcomes whether records are accurate or in compliance with auditors’ understanding. So analytical procedures are applied finally to analyze the facts but these procedures are not executed to get hold of the extra substantive analysis. In such case, if auditors find any inconsistency in the records, they must repeat the risk assessment procedure and if they feel the need of extra analytical procedures, they can go for it. Substantive analytical procedures usage Acquiring the evidence of audit that must be reliable and appropriate is one of the basic points of analytical procedures. While applying the procedures of substantive analytics, auditors need to acquire the guarantee with the assistance of other auditing tools and controls. These tools and controls help the auditors to evaluate the results of different sections after applying analytical procedures. Such analytical procedures have ability to cover a wider range of transactions that is why procedures of substantive an alytics are normally used to analyze the financial records. As it is briefly told that the auditors apply substantive analytical procedures on the expected existence of the credible relationship between financial data and they may carry on this analytical procedure in case of non-appearance of contrary factors. The existence of relationship between the data provides the base of audit evidence that leads the auditors to

Death penalty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Death penalty - Essay Example Death Penalty is the gravest of all punishments and the Roman Catholic Church’s take on this punishment has evolved over time.This change in view of the Church will be discussed in this paper thoroughly.The paper will start off by giving a history of the death penalty and its supporters and opponents in the past,in terms of societal and religious groups. Then the Roman Catholic Church’s notion on the death penalty and its development is studied. Death penalty is a serious punishment for those who have committed serious crimes such as murder and have caused harm to the society by terrorist acts. People’s and nations’ perceptions of the death penalty or execution changed over time. This perception changed according to the requirements of the era. In today’s era, where crime is pervasive but also unstoppable, there is little need for death sentences, according to many people out of which some are staunch Christians also. But why do we link the religion to death penalty? They are both different branches of the same subject. We link religion to this punishment because all religions teach respect for human life and the right of humans to their lives. We will see in our discussion how the Church changes course from defending the right of oneself to the right of human life in general. We will see how the teachings of the Church changed from supporting the death penalty as a punishment to opposing it.... We can easily say that there will be many groups who will support this as punishment and other sensitive and tender ones will oppose it as it is the violation of human rights. The question is why would anyone support it and/or oppose it People who support it believe that this punishment should be given to people who have committed serious crimes in the past because of which people have lost lives, directly or indirectly. It supports the idea of the old adage; "a tooth for a tooth". If these criminals took lives, their lives must be taken in return too. On the other hand, the opponents believe that death penalty is as bad as what the criminals did. If they killed people, it doesn't make it acceptable for authorities to become as dire as them and take their lives in return. Now that the debate is clear, we can get into the history of the death penalty. It was in the Eighteenth Century B.C. when death penalty laws were first established. However, by the Eleventh Century A.D., it was decided that only people who murdered will be hanged and not other. Death penalty was traditional in Europe also, for many centuries. People were being executed till mid-1700 but by late 1700, the US abolitionist movement started. As a result, by early 1800's many of the states concentrated the number of their death crimes by building more state prisons. In Britain, around a hundred of the crimes that were punishable by execution were eliminated (Death Penalty Information Center, 2008). By early 1900, people were executed using the electrocution method but nine states of the US had abolished the law. By 1920, the abolition movement of USA started to lose support and became unpopular. Soon after this, newer ways of executing people were being discovered. Around this

Labor Issues in Human Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Labor Issues in Human Resources - Essay Example The essay "Labor Issues in Human Resources" talks about the labor issues in human resources. HR has a lot of changes that it can undertake to avert the problem. There are some of the defined roles of the HR that it can major on heavily to ensure that it undertakes its roles effectively.After reading the article on HR, I can answer the three questions provided. We love to hate HR Since most HR managers usually focus a lot on the â€Å"administrivia† thus presenting a lack vision and strategic Insight that is desirable for their work. Such complaints have a cyclical quality, and they are normally pushed by the business context. When firms and companies strive with the labor issues, then HR becomes an indispensable leadership, partner. The office of the HR bosses the working staffs a lot and is not comparable to any other office in a firm, not even the finance office.HR has a lot of changes that it can undertake to avert the problem. There are some of the defined roles of the HR that it can major on heavily to ensure that it undertakes its roles effectively. These roles include managing layoffs process and generating flexible work arrangements. The HR is also tasked with creating a Performance management as there the typical difference from the old type of Performance Management and the current modern type management. The HR is intensely entailed in the recruiting process since they are structured or skilled to create interviews that help in singling out the identity the best candidates.

Learning Assessment Systems Assignments (LASA) Assignment

Learning Assessment Systems Assignments (LASA) - Assignment Example The class is composed of an instructor or teacher who facilitates the achievement of unit objectives and the desired learning outcomes. This is achieved through an understanding of the needs of every student within the learning process so that these needs would be met as effectively as possible. This will allow the students to acquire the learning material and use the educational resources for effectiveness in the learning process which is congruent to individual needs. The chart below demonstrates the elements of diversity and the consequent variations or differences which are represented within classrooms. As illustrated on the chart above, there are differences among students in eight grades as defined by the depicted demographics. This means that the instructor must take into consideration these differences in the teaching process. In this regard, there are specific exceptionalities which will be extended to various categories of students especially among those with physical or m ental disabilities. These exceptions include the application of a specific teaching methodology which is aimed at ensuring that the unique needs of students within each category are effectively met during the learning process. ... The various events as postulated by Gagne will represent the procedures which enable the achievement of the desired learning goals and outcomes of the learning process within the unit. Operant conditioning as an effective theoretical framework will be employed in the design of the unit plan. The unit will run for a period of two weeks which means that the goals and the objectives as designed within the unit plan have to be met within this period. Unit Goals 1. Achievement of an understanding and comprehension of the past 2. Ability to interpret and analyze past events 3. Understanding decisions of the past and achieving accuracy in judging them 4. Comprehending the diversity which exist within the society including people, cultures and geographic locations 5. Ability to discuss the ideals which represents the American democratic society Unit Objectives Operant conditioning will be used by the teacher to ensure that the students achieve the learning objectives as effectively and effic iently as possible. Through operant conditioning, students are allowed to determine the gains which they will acquire in achieving specific objectives and the related consequences in failure to achieve these objectives (Shields & Gredler, 2008). Therefore operant conditioning will be employed in this unit to motivate the achievement of the following objectives by the eighth grade students. 1. To provide ground for student participation in puzzles, games and interactive learning as the most effective stimulating activities in gaining knowledge on the civil rights movement. 2. To achieve an ability to recognize the key personalities, places, participants, players and events which were involved in

Respect Toward Your Superiors Essay Example for Free

Respect Toward Your Superiors Essay He who scorns instruction will pay for it, but he who respects a command is rewarded. Proverbs 13:12-14 NIV. There are only forty five instances of the word respect in the NIV bible. I try to live my life as though I were being watched by God Himself, because I believe that I am. I try, and hopefully achieve, to show respect to all people, NCOs and Officers, I even call civilians sir and maam. As a Christian I know that I am an example for God, and the only way some people will ever see God is through me; my actions and words. I know the power that God has in my life and how He would like for me to act by constantly talking to me. Some people call the voice of God their conscience, a feeling or a still, small voice that they should have listened to. My wife is a very spiritual person and hears the voice of God clearly, like a persons voice and not a still, small one. She often acts as my guide in matters that I am facing, and if I dont listen to her advice, it often ends badly. I say that to say that I once had a problem with respect and saw my superiors as only the people that they were and not the rank or position that they held. She warned me to start to treat my superiors with the respect that they get as a certain rank and not normal people; she would not have said if God had not had talked to her because she is a civilian and knows very little about the ways of the military. Respect by definition is the willingness to show consideration or appreciation. In terms of military respect, as in the LDRSHIP acronym, respect is to Treat people as they should be treated. And in the soldiers code, we swear an oath to treat others with dignity and respect while expecting others to do the same. With respect being defined so many ways, how is one to tell which to choose from? A seemingly obvious answer is the Armys way. But to those who serve a higher calling it would be Gods way, or even the non-believing military rationalists might word respect different. Though the grasp on the true definition for respect is put so many ways, it is a true attitude a person shows another in respect, regard, or preference to their grade, position, or stature. Though a person leads his/her life showing respect toward others, they may have a hard time getting the respect back from those that he/she has shown, and continues to show, the respect to. Respect should be a two-way street,  in my opinion, to achieve maximum affect for all parties. Show those with the same respect that they show you is a common new military idea, to curse at if you were cursed at, to push if you were pushed. I feel that a person should get what they give; such as, if a person is constantly degrading people and belittling them, then they should not be surprised if they get the same treatment in return. On the same scale, if as a superior, you get upset with a soldier and start to disrespect them out of anger, then you should not expect to get respect in return. But my belief in Christ out rules the ways of normal behavior and thinking, I try to remain respectful even if I am being respected. Many people see it as a weakness, something to be ashamed about as a leader. I feel that it shows self control, a collectiveness that most people will neither possess nor will ever understand. A level-headedness, cool under fire sort of attitude. In this given situation, however, even if a certain person, i.e., NCO, a SSG to be exact, feels that they were disrespected because they were contacted by a certain Sgts spouse, then that SSG should have brought the issue up with that particular person in which contacted him or her. There is such a thing as free speech by the civilian sectors, not necessary in the military itself, but as a civilian they are entitled to the right of free speech. And if an alert roster is given out and the spouse has access to it, anyones individual phone number could be looked up and called. If this basic freedom were denied then we wouldnt enjoy and live in the democracy that we do today. Respect is something that everyone wants, not many have, and few want to give. Most people would appreciate just a little bit, and most should give just that. Unfortunately, a lot of the time, this does not happen. Perhaps this is because the concept of respect is not understood. What exactly is respect? To respect anything is to think it through positively and hold it in some high regard, but estimation gets us into trouble because while we sometimes win, we also sometimes lose. To respect something, on the other hand, is to accept it. The dictionary defines it yet another way as an act of giving particular attention or high or special regard. This does not explain what it is; it only outlines what it may consist of in regards to  personal feelings. The word respect is very a very strong word in itself; it is a word that draws your attention from the start. But there is more to it than just being a word. There is the idea behind it, which is the beginning of many ideas and characteristics of a particular individual, group, or culture and the statement, theories, and sought understandings that forms a political, social, and economic program. By another definition, respect is to consider deserving of high or special regard. Society defines respect as the way one person or group of people treats another person or group of people and also the way they look upon those persons. We in the Army define respect as the common courtesy we give to our peers, subordinates and superiors and the way in which we carry out our orders and our duties on a daily basis within the United States Army. Respect is a common bond in todays Army because all of us are, or should be, well trained soldiers and it is a building block that our training is based upon. Respect is basically how we treat each other, the actions shown toward other people. Respect is the way in which you help others out whenever they need a hand. Respect is also the way you take the time to discipline and train your subordinates. And respect is the way you work harder than anyone and longer hours to do an excellent job for your career and your unit. These are all ways of showing respect- toward each other, our subordinates, our peers, our superiors, our unit and our country. This is the respect that we have been trained to give and which we show on a daily basis. For us serving in the military it also represents the sacrifices that we are giving for our fellow soldiers. The definition itself is all well and good, but what exactly is respect? What does it mean to me, a soldier in todays Army? Respect is something everyone is capable of achieving, but at the same time it is not just a right or privilege. It has to be earned. We as soldiers have been well trained and disciplined at respecting the ranks of superiors. But is respecting their rank or position enough? All soldiers within the Army must earn the respect of their fellow soldiers. To earn the respect of your fellow soldiers you must do many things. For your subordinates, you must be fair and just and take care of all problems that may arise. For your peers, you must be  technically and tactically proficient and set the standard for both of them to follow. And for your superiors, you must accomplish the mission quickly, efficiently and sometimes even in the absence of orders. These are just small examples of the many, many things that can help you earn the respect of your fellow soldiers. The key to remember is that you must do something other than just sit around. You must earn respect and work hard to gain it. Your rank or position deserves the military honors that are presented with it, but no more. The rest is up to us as soldiers and individuals. Through our own actions we can earn the respect of fellow soldiers, and through the actions of our fellow soldiers, they will earn our respect and all that goes with it. In the Army we adhere to a standard called military bearing. Military bearing is a code of conduct in the U.S. Army, and when you come right down to it dignity is maintained in military relationships, reflective of an individuals pride in his military service and of the organization he represents. Military personnel should be courteous and controlled to show dignity as well as respect. Part of possessing dignity is to also have the ability to respect his juniors and seniors, and acknowledge the dignity of others. This sense of pride in military service is shown during work as well as when on liberty, carrying himself at all times with reverence and a proper sense of self-worth. By admiring his seniors, the individual can be guided in presenting good conduct, and can likewise demonstrate his pride and decorum to those who in turn look to him for guidance in presenting military bearing. Dignity and respect can be taught, and examples can be shown, but the willingness to present militar y bearing also comes from within, especially when showing courtesy and respect toward others. To respect others you first have to respect yourself, if you have no self esteem then you will have a hard time respecting yourself. In an Issue of Self-Respect Being a Christian has changed my perspective on the way people perceive themselves. Since becoming a Christian I have had a hard time understanding why or how a girl or guy could belittle herself by so freely giving her body to someone else. Growing up in Indiana, I witnessed this in many different ways. Whether it is a prostitute standing on the corner in  the closest big city, or a good friend that sleeps around, the lack of respect these people have for themselves is very visible, and very sad. I am a very social person, and I would someday like to work as a minister of some sort, which is why I am taking the time now to try to understand the reasoning for their foolish and dangerous choices. Why do teenage boys and girls have such little respect for themselves? I am sure that each of these kids have her own theories and reasons for his or her actions. I believe the most obvious causes are; they were never taught that it was wrong, most guys treat girls with disrespect, and the fact that somebody wants them make them feel loved. Sadly enough, a girl having no respect for herself is not a new thing. Girls just arent taught that it is wrong to abuse their bodies or give away something that is supposed to be so sacred. It seems that some parents these days do not know how to handle their kids and are often too lenient with them. It also seems that role models in todays society advertise sex in subtle, yet noticeable ways. I think the media plays a huge role in the misleading of teenage minds. Entertainment, such as singers and actors are not even chosen based on talent anymore, they are hired based on the right look; it is all about sex appeal. Another obvious cause is, there are so many guys in todays society who were not raised to respect women. They think of women as sex objects, and unimportant people they can control. It is normal to be somewhat dependant on men, but women today seem to become totally reliant on men. In most cases that can be very unhealthy or dangerous. Men know these women need them, so they think they can get away with playing with their heads and their hearts. Women are under the false impression that if a man wants to sleep with her he must love her. When in reality, most men are really out to satisfy themselves. They will tell a girl whatever she wants to hear, until she falls into the trap and gives herself to him. Then he dumps her. You would think the girl would learn after being dumped, but she doesnt, she just looks to be loved by someone else. In most cases it becomes a habit and can be tough to break. Teenage girls in the world today have very little respect for themselves because they really dont know any better. They are just following the pattern that women have been following for generations. In societys eyes as well as their own they are not wrong. My desire for them is that they will be taught that they are very special and they deserve so much more than they think. I  pray everyday that they will realize God loves them more than anyone ever could. They have so much to offer, if they just believe in and respect themselves. There are the beginnings of respect, starting in the classrooms of America. How does respect for your superiors begin? Many people have ideas on how to reclaim the virtue and morality that made America a great nation. However, the only sure way that everyone can achieve this goal is if parents start teaching and demonstrating respect to their kids. The dictionary defines respect as- to have regard for the quality of a person or to refrain from obtruding upon or interfering with. The problem with society today is that there is a complete lack of respect. The lack of respect is evident everywhere, people have no respect for the law, they have no respect for their peers, and they definitely do not have any respect for themselves. What parents need to do is from an early age teach their kids to respect everyone, from the person sitting next to them in school to their coworkers in the future. People do not understand how much better the nation would be if the respect was there. Even if some parents do not teach their kids this valuable trait, if enough people are taught to respect others it will catch on. In most cases, if someone shows respect to someone else, that person is more likely to respect them back; causing a chain reaction. Right now, not enough parents are teaching their kids respect and this causes violence, crimes, and can even lead to drug use. It is easy to see how these problems can be easily solved or would be nonexistent if their was respect. Violence would not be a problem, because no one would fight if they had respect for the other person. The next problem is crime. Nobody is going to steal or vandalize someones property if they respect them. One other problem is drug use, this would not be a problem is people respected themselves enough to not harm their bodies with drugs. They also would not sell drugs because selling something to someone that will harm them is not showing respect to that person. It is extremely easy to sit back and say that parents should teach respect, but it is not as easy to actually teach it. For there is really no way to  teach a child to respect others. Parents can tell their children to respect others all they want, but the only way a child will actually learn respect is from observing their parents as well as others showing respect. This is why teaching respect is so difficult, even if a child sees his parents respecting others it may not be enough, the child must see other people respecting others. They must also feel that other people respect them, because if they do not get respect they will not respect anyone. This is why it is so important for everyone to show respect to everyone else, not only will kids see it, but the more respect that is shown to others the more respect that is received. For these reasons respect is the chief ingredient in reestablishing the morality and virtue that made America a great nation.

The Issues For Building Resilient Communities Environmental Sciences Essay

The Issues For Building Resilient Communities Environmental Sciences Essay Hazards are found everywhere and so the onus is always upon the communities involved to find ways to deal with such hazards (Benini et al 2008), some of which may have serious consequences while others may be less serious. Harzards which are posed by disasters may however, have far reaching effects on the local communities and in most cases there may not be adequate ways of tackling these and the communities must learn to live with such hazards. This essay will make an attempt to evaluate the nature of harzards their effects that call upon certain measures of resilience to be affected to deal with the same. It is the view of this essay that in areas where disasters are prone, there may be more hazards and hence also, more resilience responses by the members of the communities than in areas where such disasters and hence harzards are less (Garg et al 2007). But this view is only limited to the extent where natural disasters are common and not necessarily in areas where other disasters might occur, because, while natural hazards may be common place in certain areas for instance flooding and cyclone in Bangladesh due to its geographical position, fire hazards may occur in any country irrespective of its geographical location and hence the scope of this discussion will be limited to the kind of hazard that will be used (Berkes, Colding, Folke 2003, Zhou H., et al 2008). Disasters which often lead to hazards may be defined as those occurrences that are unplanned and are sudden or even anticipated and whose effects are often widespread (Benini et al 2008). Disasters have over the years struck different parts of the world and as much as they are not anticipated, there is never a guarantee that they have stopped. The essay will also present ways in which resilience communities might be build to deal with several hazards, which might arise in such a way that when such hazards arise the effects may not be too great to bear. According to Hollings (2004) and Hewitt (2004) resilience is important when dealing with hazards fro a number of ways; First, it creates a holistic approach to dealing with hazards on the basis of common notion or scientific suggestions, second, it provides the community with a multi-hazard response approach where the society will always know how to approach a hazardous situation from different perspective and lastly, being a forward looking approach, it can help a society to build response policy for dealing with hazards as and when they occur. Vulnerability of communities When a community is faced by disasters, there may either be resilience or vulnerability. In the view of this paper, resilience is the ability of the society to deal with such disasters and to overcome with little or not casually whatsoever, while vulnerability is the situation where the society is resigned to the harm caused by the disasters and the occurrence of the same will often come with devastating effects (Berkes, Colding, Folke 2003). Hazards, which are often a result of disasters, must hence be deal with using systematic or had-oc mechanisms (Islam , Deegan 2008). According to Backoff (2001), the people who live in stressed conditions are often more predisposed to cope that those in other conditions, and in the view of this report and according to (Jordan 2009), the levels of coping with such conditions may often change due to changes in the intensity of the conditions (Garg et al 2007). Different communities hence have different ways for dealing with hazards as they arise and while some may have a holistic approach to dealing with hazards for instance, tackling all hazards in the same way, others might have specific approach to dealing with the same (Zuberi 1988). There may hence be a debate as to which approach is the best. The nature of intervention build by a community may hence be viewed as a matter of tradition and culture than as a matter of snap policy. The Coast of Bangladesh This area of Bangladesh is considered the most hazardous due to the problems that are posed by environmental hazards to the residents each year (Islam , Deegan 2008). When the cyclone roars, it causes with it death and unimaginable injuries to the people living in these areas . What often happens here is that when the anti-clockwise cyclone starts offshore as a result of low atmospheric pressure, it increases the height of the water to a few meters and with a wind of about 190km/ hour, when such water is pushed to the land, it causes massive destruction (Garg et al 2007). Official figures showing the history of such disasters in Bangladesh indicates that this cyclone killed 0.5 million in 1970, and it was known as the great cyclone. Also, this coastal area is not strange to tornadoes and between 1877 and 1987, Bangladesh suffered a total of 19 serious cyclones with such tornadoes often carrying properties and depositing them tens of kilometres away and in the course of doing so, leaves masses of people, dead, injured or homeless (Salman 2009). The government records indicate that in 1987, 1988, 1998, 2004 and 2007, several floods have raved Bangladesh leading to serous deaths. In 2004, 40% of the capital city was affected, the experts have warned that the effects of global warming will become the cause of hazard in the recent times, and that Bangladesh must be ready to face it or deal with it (Salman 2009, Islam, Deegan 2008). Hazards and Vulnerabilities Bangladesh faces many problems occasioned by disasters which are both natural and man-made (Zuberi 1988), including flooding, silent but rampant spread of HIV-AIDS, Child Malnutrition and of course poverty. With relations to flooding, which will form our main subject matter, there are many contributory factors that have made this country and especially the coastal region to be most vulnerable to disasters (Kumar, Reddy 2007), first, as stated earlier, the country sits on the path of hot air and cold air meeting points making it vulnerable to cyclones and torrential rains which often cause havoc to the people in the region, Bangladesh is geographically placed on an estuary where the sea curves into the masses of land on either side at the bay of Bengal (appendix 1) and when the moist air from the sea meets with dry air on the land then the results is heavy rainfall, that may be up to several millimetres higher in a day that most places get in a several days (Salman , 2009), secondly, Bangladesh has probably the highest concentration of river estuaries within a small mass of land, than any other country, making it vulnerable to flooding when the rivers break their banks, thirdly, Banglade sh also has one of the highest population densities in the world with a density of 1045 per square kilometre (AsiaInfo 2010). With such a high population density, (Salman 2009, Malone 2009), noted that any occurrence in hazard will definitely have devastating effect on the masses. This explains why whenever there is flooding in this county, the number of deaths will always running to several hundreds if not thousands. Fourth, this country has one of the highest poverty levels in the world and certainly one of the poorest in South East Asia region (Medical News 2008, Jordan 2009), with dowry payment that often runs to more that hundreds of times of average daily wages, being blamed for such levels since families try to save a lot of money in a lifetime and luxury or even mere subsistence is non existence (Mahmud , Amin 2006, Garg et al 2007). With such levels of poverty, it is the view of this report that the government does not also have any resources to provide for its population, indeed if there are no provisions to support the population in normal times, then, such may not be available when hazards strike. Fifth, the levels of ignorance in this area and especially at the coastal regions is extremely high that the population has not ideal whatsoever about issues of climate change, or weather conditions (Martin et al 2006, Berkes 2007), and this has led to late reaction when floods are developing since people go about their businesses as if nothing is happening and by the time they begin to react, it is often very late. According to (Hudson 2008), when a society does not appreciate the issues surrounding their safety, especially when such issues are caused by natural catastrophes, then the results are often catastrophic as such societies are often well placed on the time-bomb of prolonged danger and destruction. But, lack of awareness is often related to the levels of poverty in the society and this can hence be attributed as a secondary issue of vulnerabilit y in this region of Bangladesh, since it is a result of general levels of poverty, but not necessarily of ignorance, as the people in the cities are often more informed than those in the rural areas (Martin et al 2006). But (Zuberi 1988), argued that disasters have not subjective effects, and levels of ignorance have never spared or saved a society when disasters are about to strike, however, these views are subjective, since, the nature of destruction and hazards posed by disasters largely depend on the kind of hazards in question (Malone 2009). Building resilience In an area where flooding hazard is an issue that has continued to affect the society for decades, resilience is crucial. According to (Berkes 2007) , it is important to build good resilience to ensure that the hazards are reduced and their effected minimised. Resilience, provides a society with ways of avoiding suffering not only for the present but also for the future (Kumar, Reddy 2007). However, this has to be carried out systematically, lest it fails. There is a need to ensure that there is greater acceptability of the resilience mechanism by the society in such a way that programs being given immediately take off with general consensus of the masses (Hudson 2008). It should however be noted that for issues affecting cultural practices, it is important to tread carefully, and ensure that local community heads are put on the forefront of the program. Such activities may include; the local government representatives and religious reasons. From the information presented above, it can be seen that the coastal region of Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to flood hazard dating back to past decades. One of the noticeable but simple and less effective ways that the people in the coastal regions of Bangladesh have been doing is to build elevated wooden structures (Zhou H., et al 2008). Of course the choice of material has nothing to do with building defences but everything to do with subjection to poverty, since, in the view of this essay, stronger housing, are necessary for creating some level of defences against flooding, but, wooden structures do not provide such resilience (Bennett et al 2010). In this region, people have also adapted to creating sandbags from soil and placing them around the vulnerable areas near the river as a way of having a sustained defence against flooding caused by overflow rivers (Malone 2009) , but these methods are carried out at micro level and there is no way they can be judged as effective. According to (Zhou H., et al 2008), the government must priorities its response mechanism and involve the local community in the process. This essay holds the view that, in order to create resilience, the following must be considered; first, the government need to start long term empowerment programs where people will be empowered economically, in Bangladesh, the United Nations bodies have continued to engage the local population in empowerment programs (Swalheim, Dodman 2008), but this has been short term and aimed at putting food on the table, rather than creating long term propensity to purchase. There is a need to ensure that self-sustaining economic activities are encouraged and this can be done through the provision of facilities for cottage industry, subsidies, tax holidays and fetching for markets for the products (Garg et al 2007). Cottage industries are preferred than agriculture which the people have for so long relied on, but without tangible success, secondly, there is a need to create a nationwide awareness for cultural change where people will be encouraged to change their attitude towards marriage and d owry (Mahmud , Amin 2006, Garg et al 2007). This will obviously be very hard to achieve, but it can be made to be part of the long-term strategy to making people to spend their money, this will result in increment in the general levels of riches in the region. Third, there is a need to ensure that the population in the coastal region avoids practices that put the environment in jeopardy and instead, engage in such practices as will lead to environmental sustenance, including, responsible disposal of non-biodegradable materials, some of which are used to make the makeshift houses, and afforestation. The premise here is that, due to higher levels of rainfall every year, it is possible to plant trees in millions in the whole region and especially by the river areas. The trees to be planted should initially be such that have a faster growth pattern, which will grow fast and act as barriers to erosion and windbreakers (Garg et al 2007). This is a sure long-term defence that will transform the region forever, and guarantee life for posterity. When the forest cover is developed, it is possible to embark on agriculture and this will develop the area further as famine will be a thing of the past, and the society, which will have also developed cottage industry will be in a good position not only to provide for their food but also housing. The view held by this essay is that afforestation and development of cottage industry are crucial in building resilience. On particular importance is afforestation, which will control climate change as Bangladesh still sits on the path of the wrath of climate change. Rampant flooding, which causes with it deaths, sicknesses, destruction of property and other problems will continue to affect this area if nothing is done to develop a long term solution (Bennett et al 2010, Garg et al 2007). Bangladesh will remain on the Bay of Bengal and if irrigation continues in India and silt is deposited in Bangladesh along river Ganges, then nothing can be done from the side of India, then activities for conservation must be undertaken in Bangladesh, and everyone should participate. Discussion and Conclusion This essay has managed to highlight the historical issues that have put Bangladesh on the path of flood and hazards. Hazards have had devastating effects on a people and their property and when it is perennial, the effects may lead to a cycle of poverty that may not come to an end. The need for resilience in the societies is therefore vital and as seen in the case of coastal areas of Bangladesh, geographical disposition of the country makes it very vulnerable and especially the coastal regions which (Garg et al 2007). The people of this country are also very poor and that translates to governments inability to provide for emergency, leaving the people exposed to floods and cyclones. In this area most people, have erected elevated houses to stay above the flood lines but when such houses are built on cardboards and polythene and even wooded materials, the defence created are very much minimised and instead, lack of sanitation and these materials, cause further problems to the environment (Garg et al 2007). As much as there are issues that can be viewed as being taboos, it is important to ensure that such taboos are gradually but surely dealt with. Most notable was the issue of dowry and issues of HIV AIDS which are also contributory to disasters in this country . What needs to be done, is to create a level of higher purchasing power and this can be done through engaging the community in cottage industries than agriculture, which can be encouraged by the government who should get the market for the people and technology too (Swalheim, Dodman 2008), along with this, there may be more acceptance to embark on tree planting activities and if the government sets targets for a certain number of trees to be planted, then this will provide impetus to the people to do the same, but they must be taught about the importance of environmental conservation (Garg et al 2007, Martin et al 2006). Later on, as economic conditions improve, and when the trees have developed, people can then be taken through responsible agricultural training. The government should work with and encourage community-based organisations to mobilise and encourage the local communities to undertake such projects. By creating an enabling economic environment in the region, most people will be willing to undertake any other conservation programs that will crate long term resilience to the hazards that have continued to affect this region (Swalheim, Dodman 2008, Berkes 2007). Bangladesh, by virtue of its location, needs long-term resilience mechanism as a country to deal with hazards that are evolving. The need to understand that the problems facing this country will increase as climate change is also becomes more serious. The local population will not, on their own develop resilience unless the government leads with its resources. References AsiaInfo (2010) Bangladesh country information [Online] available from < http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/bangladesh/bangladesh.htm> accessed on 25th May, 2010. Bennett et al (2010) Exploring the meaning of health security for disaster resilience through peoples perspectives in Bangladesh. Elsevier Ltd. Newcastle upon Tyne. Benini et al (2008) Resilience and Vulnerability in Long-Term NGO Clients. Findings from an RDRS Bangladesh Panel survey. Bangladesh; Berkes F., (2007) Understanding uncertainness and reducing vulnerability: lessons from resilience thinking. Vol 41., Number 2. Netherlands. Berkes F., Colding J., Folke C., (2003) Navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge University Press. Fiona R., (2010) Social Networking and adaptation in rural Bangladesh. Vol 2. Number 1. Garg et al (2007) From Vulnerability to Resilience: The Challenge of Adaptation to Climate Change. Case studies from Bangladesh, Brazil, China, India, South Africa and Korea. Hewitt K. (2004) A synthesis of the symposium and reflection on reducing risk through partnerships. Winnipeg. Hollilngs C., (2004) From Complex regions to complex Worlds. Ecology and Sociology. Hudson R., (2008) International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development. Vol 3. Number 3/4 . Durham University. Islam A., Deegan C., (2008) Motivations for an organisation within a developing country to report social responsibility information: Evidence from Bangladesh. Vol 21. Issues 6. Jordan J., (2009) Rethinking community resilience to climate change: does a social capital lens help?. Belfast. Kumar, P., Reddy S., (2007) Ecology and human well-being. Sage Publications. Mahmud S., Amin S. (2006) Girls Schooling and Marriage in rural Bangladesh. Research in the sociology of Education. Vol 15. Malone E., (2009) Resilience, Climate Change, and security: Modelling the Connections. Baltimore. Martin et al (2006) Vulnerability and Risk Reduction through a community based system for flood monitoring and forecasting. Medical News (2008) Major Cause of Poverty in Bangladesh is Marriage Dowry. [Online] available from < http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/127710.php> accessed on 26th May, 2010. Salman A., (2009) Bangladeshs economy: surrounded by deadly threats. International Journal of Social Economics. Vol 36. Issue  ½. Swalheim S., Dodman D., (2008) Building resilience: how the urban poor can drive climate adaptation. Zhou H., et al (2008) Resilience to natural hazards: a geographic Perspective. Vol 53. Number 1. Netherlands. Zuberi M., (1988) Environmental, Socio-Cultural and development linkages in a South Asia set-up. Vol 25. issue 6-8.

The dissociative identity disorder diagnosis controversy

The dissociative identity disorder diagnosis controversy Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD), has been widely recognized and studied over the years. Although Dissociative Identity Disorder was officially accepted by the DSM-IV as a valid psychiatric diagnosis, intense debate about its validity is still common. There are two basic positions that dominate the controversy of DID. There are some who believe that it is a valid diagnosis. Proponents of DID argue that those who resist to diagnose their patients with DID and fail to recognize the disorder are not well trained. While others argue that DID is not a valid psychiatric diagnosis. These people argue that DID is caused by misguided individuals who look continuously searches for the right therapist until they receive the diagnosis that they wanted. In addition to that, these people believe that DID is an iatrogenic phenomenon brought on by incompetent therapists through hypnosis and suggestions. For those who argue that DID is a valid diagnosis they point out that the diagnosis of Dissociative Identity Disorder is extremely complex. One of the reasons that its complex to diagnose is because of how difficult it is to differentiate from many other syndromes. In addition to that, DID can even coexist with more familiar and less controversial syndromes. In 1984, Coons stated that DID can be confused with other dissociative disorders such as psychogenic amnesia and fugue, and depersonalization disorder. Furthermore, DID can also be confused with atypical dissociative disorder experience by those who were in prisoner or hostage situations and dissociates from the stress such as physical and emotional abuse that they endure caused by their captors. Since phobias, mood swings and conversion reactions like pseudo seizures, paralysis, and blindness are common with anxiety, affective, and somatoform disorder they may also co-exist with multiple personality disorder. In order to obtain more evidence that a patient has DID, Coons suggested that information from external sources such as family members, friends, coworkers, and hospital staff is important. When asking these people, a clinician should ask about evidence of personality changes, persistent lying, use of third person, handwriting changes, and many others subtle signs that may provide evidence of DID (Coons, 1984). In addition to Coons, in a study conducted by Horevitz and Braun (1984), they found that DID can co-exist with borderline personality. They studied 93 patients with confirmed diagnoses of DID. During the study they were only to evaluate 33 of the 93 cases. They found that 23 of the 33 or 70% of their sample also qualified for the diagnosis of borderline personality (Horevitz Braun 1984). Similar to the studies conducted by Horevitz and Braun, and Coons, Clary, Burstin, and Carpenter concluded that DID has a lot in common with borderline personality. They drew their conclusions from 11 patients who were poor and referred through public agencies and womens shelter. On their study, Clary et al. noted the difference between their findings and Richard Klufts (1982) findings. Kluft found borderline characteristics in only 22.8% of his 70 subjects. 45% of them were described as neurotic mixtures and 32% were described as hysterical-depressive. Clary et al. assumed that their results were different from Kluft because Klufts patients were from a private psychoanalytic practice. Because of this, their functioning is better because of the demands intensive psychoanalytic psychotherapy entails (Clary, Burstin, Carpenter, 1984). Proponents of DID like Carol North, Jo-Ellyn Ryall, Daniel Ricci, and Richard Wetzel point out documented physiologic differences between personalities of patients with DID. These claims were then supported by the argument that these symptoms could not be replicated by normal people or professional actors. This is because, there are distinctive patterns among the different personalities that a patient with DID has. These differences can be detected through the positron emission tomography (PET) scans, evoked potentials, voice prints, visual acuity, eye muscle balance, visual field size, galvanic skin response, electroencephalographic patterns, electromyography, and cerebral blood flow (North et al., 1993, pg. 29). Proponents argue that DID patients are quiet, unassuming, and shy individuals who do not seek public attention. According to Kluft (1985), DID patients try to disguise their conditions because they are worried about the reactions that theyre going to get from reluctant therapists. In different studies conducted by Kluft, he found multiple times the reluctance that DID patients feel when seeing a therapist. In one of his studies, he found that only 40% of patients with DID showed subtle hints of the disorder while 40% showed no overt signs at all. In that study he found that the diagnosis of DID was an inverse relationship to how clear the symptoms were in the patient. During this study he also found that multiples who enter treatment do because of affective, psychotic-like, or somatoform symptoms as opposed to classical DID symptoms. Since the presentation of the disorder is often subtle, Kluft points out that it is important for clinicians to work very hard to elicit a history compa tible with DID. Similar to Coons, Kluft specifically mentioned that its important for clinicians to use indirect inquiries for patients who show the symptoms of DID (Kluft, 1984). In 1986 he found that 50% of DID patients withheld evidence of DID during their first assessment, and 90% said that at one point in their lives they tried to hide the manifestations of DID. Kluft also found that there are some cases where the symptoms of DID are not voluntarily provided to the therapist because patients are unaware that they have the disorder (Kluft, 1986). In spite of a lack of consensus that DID is a valid psychiatric disorder, proponents of DID, like Kluft, have divided DID into subtypes. Later Kluft (1991) described the typology of DID presentation that includes the following types: Classic MPD, latent MPD, posttraumatic MPD, extremely complex of fragmented MPD, Epochal or sequential MPD, isomorphic MPD, coconscious MPD, possessioniform MPD, reincarnation/mediumistic MPD, atypical MPD, secret MPD, ostensible imaginary companionship MPD, covert MPD, phenocopy MPD, somatoform MPD, Orphan symptom MPD, switch-dominated MPD, ad hoc MPD, modular MPD, quasi-roleplaying MPD, and pseudo-false positive MPD (North et. al, 1993, pg. 30). Another person who believes that DID is a valid psychiatric disorder is Brad Foote. Foote (1999) wrote a paper that features why DID can easily be mistaken for hysterical phenomena. One of the main critiques that other people have is that DID does not occur naturally. Instead, its symptoms are a modern version of hysteria. In this view, many believe that patients may create or report dissociative symptoms both intentionally and unintentionally in order to assume the sick role. Opponents believe that this sick role is advantageous because of the attention that they get from friends, family, and their therapist. In addition to that, some proponents believe that the therapist has a big influence on the patients pathology and thus contributes to this phenomenon. According to this view, patients did not have any symptoms of DID present prior to seeing a therapist. On the other hand, those who treat DID patients argue that: 1. There is a naturally occurring presentation of DID, prior to th erapist suggestions; 2. Patients do not embrace the DID diagnosis willingly, and in fact usually fight at least as hard to reject as, for extremely ego-dystonic; 3. DID symptoms do not disappear when ignored; and 4. The disorder actually begins in childhood, in the context of overwhelming trauma, and there could not possibly be caused by the adult therapist together with the patient (Foote, 1999, pg. 321). Foote describes that for a typical DID patient, powerlessness takes place in a severe level. He states that it is common for a DID patient to have a long history of abuse, usually including sexual abuse. When it comes to diagnosing DID, Foote explains a situation in which a typical DID patient will find herself in. If the therapists bias that the DID patient is creating her symptoms to seek attention, this bias will only be confirmed by all of the drama and attention that the patient will have. Whether or not the patient does anything dramatic depends on the therapist. Subsequentl y, if the patient is talking to a skeptical listener, the patient will feel powerless and will cause her to give up, or become hysterical and desperate in her communications in order to explain to her therapist her symptoms. Furthermore, if the therapist has a strong bias that switching from one personality to another is feigned, there are no data that could falsify this statement. If the patients switch is subtle the observer would think that there is no big deal and it doesnt seem like the patient has a different personality. Similarly, if the patient has a dramatic switch the therapist would believe that her actions are exaggerated and obviously unreal. With this said, however, Foote wanted to clarify that DID diagnosis is not immune from factitious presentations for the purpose of attention-seeking. However, skepticism can become a barrier to the possibility of the diagnosis to be perceived. To conclude, Foote wanted to point out that first, DID by its nature is unavoidably dram atic and that this causes clinicians to be unconvinced before they have ever seen a DID patient. Because of this, he encourages clinicians to be open-minded and be aware of how complicated DID can be. He believes that if a clinician takes their time to patiently immerse him/herself in the world of DID, they will discover the possibilities of DID that are not readily available superficially. Second, Foote points out that its important for clinicians to, Hopefully, we can call upon our own internal resources of calmness and confidence that if a story is true it will ultimately be heard, and proceed to communicate accordingly (pg. 342). According to Frank Putnam (1996), There are three basic criticism when it comes to the validity of DID. The first one is that DID is an iatrogenic disorder caused by the psychiatrist. Second, critics say that DID is produced by the media. Finally, critics say that DID case numbers are increasing exponentially over the years. For the first argument on DID being caused by a psychiatrist, Putnam points out that there are at least two clinical studies that have shown that there are no distinct differences between those who are diagnosed with DID and was treated with or without hypnosis. Also, many patients who have never been treated using hypnosis was diagnosed with DID. This shows that the accusation that the misuse of hypnosis is responsible for the disorder is not accurate. Second, by looking at decades worth of research on the media effects on behavior, Putnam says that it is clear that exposure to specific media is not a sure cause of a certain behavior. He points out that the port rayal of violence in the media is more common than the depiction of DID. Yet, critics say that the small amount DID portrayals in the media is significantly responsible for the increase in diagnosed cases. Finally regarding DID cases increasing exponentially; Putnam says that its common for critics to inflate their numbers without any evidence supporting their figures. According to him, after plotting the numbers of published cases of DID he found that they have increased but not as dramatic as critics make it sound. In fact, over the same period of time other disorders such as Lyme disease, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and chronic fatigue syndrome have shown an equal or faster increase in published cases compared to DID. These results reflect the results of basic advancement in the medical field. Disorders increase in published cases may be due to the new discoveries of symptoms that used to be unrelated. As new symptoms are found to be related to certain disorders, the more the physicians can identify the condition. Ultimately, Putnam believes that DID meets the standards of content validity criterion, criterion-related validity, and construct validity considered necessary for the validity of a psychiatric diagnosis (pg. 263). One of the controversial topics about DID and its diagnosis is that hypnosis elicit DID. Richard Kluft, a Clinical of Professor of Psychiatry in Temple University School of Medicine believes that hypnosis or suggestion may be the reason some patients have alternate personalities. However, he believes that iatrogenesis or hypnosis do not explain DID. While Putnam (1986) did not detect and differences in clinical presentation, symptoms, or past history between patients who were hypnotized and those who werent. Furthermore, Ross et al. (1989) conducted a study where they studied 236 patients who were diagnosed with DID. They found that only a third of these patients had been hypnotized prior to being actually diagnosed with DID. In addition to this study, Ross conducted another study where he compared DID patients of psychiatrists who specialize in DID and patients of psychiatrists who did not specialize in this disorder. They concluded that DID is not iatrogenic. The idea of iatrogenes is has been continuously disputed. The study that Ross et al. (1989) found compelling evidence that shows that DID is a genuine disorder with consistent core features with compelling evidence. Nicholas Spanos, a Professor of Psychology at Ottawas Carelton University conducted two experiments which explores DID. He argues that DID patients are not passive victims. Instead, they are patients who do things to purposefully be diagnosed with the disorder. He also argued that therapists assist these patients achieve their goals. The therapists provide encouragement, information, and validation for the different identities. For his first experiment in 1984, he had forty-eight undergraduate volunteers as his subjects. They were asked to role-play an accuse multiple murder named Henry or Betty whose lawyer decided to enter a not guilty plea. They were told that a psychiatrist would interview them and might even use hypnosis. If hypnosis was used they were asked to also role-play being hypnotized. The subjects were not told anything about DID. There were three possible conditions that eight men and eight women were randomly assigned to. In the first condition, the subjects were aske d if the felt the same thing as Harry or Betty or if they felt any different. In the second condition, subjects were told that they had complex personalities but hypnosis would allow the therapist to get behind the wall that hid their inner thoughts from awareness. Furthermore, the hypnotist would be able to talk to their other personality under hypnosis. In the third, which was the control group, subjects were told that personality was complex and included walled-off thoughts and feelings. Spanos also administered a five-item sentence completion and a differential test to all subjects (it included all their different roles, where a second personality was enacted). After the psychiatrist told the subjects their personality, they asked the same four questions to each subject. The responses were rated by judges who didnt know the subjects treatment groups. The results showed that 81% of the subjects who were asked if they felt the same thing as harry or Betty or are they different and 31% of subjects in hidden-part treatment adopted a new name. 70% of those subjects who adopted a new name had two different identities. 63% of subjects in the hypnotic treatments displayed spontaneous amnesia. While, none of the control subjects used a different name or had amnesia. In his discussion Spanos makes four points. First, only the subjects who were hypnotized used another name, reported two different identities, and amnesia. Second, all but one subject who had multiple personalities admitted guilt on the second administration. Those who had no multiple personalities continuously denied guilt. Third, Spanos points out how easy it is to fake multiple personality even without the knowledge of DID. Finally, Spanos points out that multiple typically show contrasting personalities. Spanos believes that the amnesia of his subjects was a strategic way to control the subjects ability to recall a memory in response to the situation at hand (Spanos 1984). Another point that opponents want to make is that DID is well suited for providing patients a way to avoid being responsible for their actions. Kluft (1985) described some DID patients who value their disorder. In hospital wards, other patients complain that DID patients avoid accountability and responsibility. DID may also be accounted for the failures that a person with DID wants to avoid facing. DID patients use this disorder as an excuse for their difficulties or failures to explain why they were in the situation that they were in. According to Bliss, another way that DID can be beneficial to others is that it shows an outlet to express behaviors that are deemed unacceptable, such as sexual behaviors, physical aggressions, or substance abuse. An alternate personality may abuse substances or rape, while the host personality would never do such a thing. This fits the descriptions that alternate personalities are usually irresponsible and likes to act out with the host personality a s proper. Alternate personalities are also created to manage unpleasant emotions that the patient wants to avoid. Specific emotions are assigned to a personality as a way to avoid having to acknowledge strong or painful emotions. (Kluft, 1985). Since the case of Eve Black became famous Thigpen and Cleckley wrote a paper where they showed concern for the epidemic of DID cases. There were thousands of patients who travelled thousands of miles to see different therapists until they received the diagnosis that they wanted. Not only that, but they go through great lengths such as talking on the phone in different voices, sending photographs of different selves, and writing letters with different handwritings for every paragraph. When it comes to these people, these desperate actions would not stop until they were diagnosed with DID. Another category of patients wrongly diagnoses with DID were attention-seeking hysterics who are affected by the labeling process. While, the last category that they described are groups of individuals who arent satisfied with their self-concept so they use dissociation to allow the unacceptable aspects of their personalities to be expressed (Thigpen Cleckley, 1984). Proponents of DID assert that DID is a genuine disorder that has a valid diagnosis, whereas skeptics argue that DID is an iatrogenic or faked condition. These two different arguments may both be persuasive but neither of them does not answer the question of the validity of DID. It is important to evaluate these arguments to determine the extent of the diagnosis of DID. Current knowledge of the clinical phenomenology of DID cannot be considered as either proof or disproof that DID is a valid diagnostic entity. Kluft calls for active research rather than fruitless debate (pg. 3). Future studies on DID will have many opportunities to address the challenges that both proponents and opponents of DID diagnosis validity pose.